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The Progressive Education Movement: A Historical Overview and Analysis

Abstract


The Progressive Education Movement has a unique history in that it has been defined differently by various philosophers, educators, and researchers. However, it can be agreed upon that the Progressive Education Movement arose out of the Progressive Era in the early 20th century, in response to government control, lack of individualism, and a need for educational reform. Progressive educators and leaders argued that creativity, imagination, and critical thinking were essential skills for students to be successful in the world that awaited them. Furthermore, these progressive ideas, led by people like Ellwood P. Cubberley and Susan Miller Dorsey, were believed to have the power to transform society and create a more balanced partnership between the government and the individual. However, after events such as the World Wars and the Space Race, citizens of the United States began to fear that their country was falling behind in technological, scientific, and mathematical advancements around the world, ultimately leading to the demolition of Progressivism and the establishment of standardization and testing. Though critics oppose full acceptance of Progressivism in education, there remains a need for progressive ideas to be implemented within curriculum to ensure the success of students in the modern world.


Keywords: Progressivism, Susan Miller Dorsey, The Space Race, Standardization


Introduction


The Progressive Education Movement is unique in that it “meant different things to different people at different times” (Smith, 2020). In general, Progressive educators and leaders believed in the power of creativity, individualism, and critical thinking. While Progressive ideas are still relevant in schools today, the Progressive Education Movement, itself, did not last long due to a lack of standardization and a “failure to keep pace with the tremendous social changes that had been going on” (Ipfling et al., 2024). Though currently stifled by critics who claim that there is no way to properly assess the foundational knowledge of students when a philosophy of Progressivism is practiced, there remains a need for teachers, administrators, and educational leaders to embrace progressive ideas in order to properly prepare students for the modern world.


Summary and Context


The Progressive Education Movement was developed in the early 20th century in response to the political and social progressive movements across the United States. Activists during the Progressive Era argued for “strengthening the national government and making it more responsive to popular economic, social, and political demands” (Milkis, 2024). Many progressives believed the government and large corporations were threatening individuals and their right to earn a living in society, going so far as to claim that these “newly formed associations…[had] corrupted the men and methods of government for their own profit” (Milkis, 2024). Ultimately, members of the Progressive Movement across the country argued for three foundational changes: a new government that “stressed collective responsibilities and duties,” a renewed partnership between the government and the people, and the delegation of power from “state legislators and Congress” to an “independent executive power” that would represent their local community (Milkis, 2024). 


Credit: Britannica
Credit: Britannica

At the same time, women were becoming involved in suffrage movements and standing up for their right to participate in politics, resulting in their leadership in many “progressive initiatives such as social welfare reform, child labor laws,...and most importantly education” (Smith, 2020). In fact, many of these women, including Elaine Key and Susan Miller Dorsey, believed in the power of education to transform society by enforcing curriculum that would focus on practical vocations and job training. According to Smith (2020), Susan Miller Dorsey - the first female superintendent of a public school district, as well as a conservative Republican who embraced John Dewey’s progressive ideas in education - believed that “academic standards were commendable, but students needed socialization and integration into society”. Essentially, Dorsey did not disregard the need for standardization, but partnered it with her belief in student-centered learning and the instruction of critical thinking skills. 


Creator: Courtesy Photo | Credit: U.S. Civilian
Creator: Courtesy Photo | Credit: U.S. Civilian

While the start of the Progressive Education Movement is not agreed upon, there is a consensus among historians that this era ended when Sputnik was launched in 1957 (Hines et al., 2023). The greatest fear of Progressive leaders was that the government was overstepping their rights and impeding on individual freedoms. However, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the “nation’s fear of government intrusion…was suddenly replaced in 1957 by another fear - the potential loss of the Cold War to the Soviets” (Smith, 2020). The blame was quickly placed on the education system, claiming that students were not sufficiently trained in science, math, technology, and foreign languages. As a result, President Dwight D. Eisenhower began the “trend of federal government reach into the education arena” by signing the National Defense Education Act that would provide “$70 million annually for four years to support the instruction of science, mathematics, and modern foreign languages” (Smith, 2020), thus ending the Progressive Education Movement. 


Critical Analysis


During the early 20th century, between the years of 1933 and 1941, the Progressive Education Association (PEA) conducted an experimental project, known as the Eight-Year Study, in which “thirty high schools redesigned their curriculum while initiating innovative practices in student testing, program assessment, student guidance, curriculum design, and staff development” (Kridel, 2024). The purpose of this experiment was to prove that progressive ideas in education would not only, “[provide] better coordination between high schools and colleges for those students who continued their postsecondary education,” but also “address the needs of non-college-bound students” (Kridel, 2024). At this point in history, Progressive activists believed the education system across the United States was placing too much emphasis on standardization, testing, and rote memorization, while having a complete disregard for the teaching of vocational and life skills. According to Gagnon (2024) and Kridel (2024), the results of the Eight-Year study prove that traditional forms of instruction, including the implementation of standardized testing, are not required for the success of students at the secondary level.



Credit: Caitlin Biebrich | Discovering 1919: Discovering Digital History
Credit: Caitlin Biebrich | Discovering 1919: Discovering Digital History

Similarly, Darrow (2023) addresses the issue Ellwood P. Cubberley brought to attention during the Progressive Era stating that “rote memorization and teacher centered” learning impeded on student engagement and student success by ignoring individual student needs. Furthermore, Terzian and Wright (2023) explain how many of the educators, psychologists, and philosophers in the Progressive Era believed creativity and imagination could transform America’s culture and social hopes. However, research from the Eight-Year Study, as well as arguments from Progressive educators and activists, were quickly shut down after several historical events, such as the World Wars and the Space Race, which showcased America’s inability to keep up with technological, scientific, and mathematical advances taking place around the world (Darrow, 2023). While the Progressive Education Movement offered opportunities for students to receive individualized learning, vocational skills, and instruction on critical thinking, critics continued to argue that the “ability to produce novel or unconventional ideas…did not bear any relation to general intelligence;” therefore, convincing the United States of the necessity of standardization and universal testing in order to catch up with national advances in education (Terzian et al., 2023).


Credit: Britannica
Credit: Britannica

Tension between the instruction of critical thinking skills and general knowledge continues to arise in the modern school system. Although multiple-choice questioning and rote memorization were proven ineffective by several psychologists in the Progressive Era, the public school system is still under immense pressure to provide proof of academic performance and student success (Darrow, 2023; Terzian et al., 2023). The Apostle Paul reminds the church in Romans 12:2, “Do not conform to the patterns of this world, but be transformed by the renewing of  your mind. Then you will be able to test and approve what God’s will is - his good, pleasing, and perfect will” (New International Version, 1973/2011). God created each individual uniquely and for a specific purpose, giving their mind the ability to think critically and be set apart from the world. He did not intend for human beings to be identical and robotic. Therefore, the progressive idea of meeting individual student needs is both logical and biblical. In fact, Gagnon (2024) offers an insightful concept, following the Progressivism model for education, arguing that assessments should “produce artifacts that have meaning beyond the classroom,” in contrast to standardized testing, which does not test real-life skills or accommodate the unique, individual abilities of the student. 


Conclusion


The necessity for teachers, administrators, and educational leaders to embrace progressive ideas in order to successfully prepare students for the modern world remains valid, even amidst the criticism surrounding the Progressive Education Movement. Historically, the Progressive Education Movement arose from societal and political needs during the Progressive Era in the early 20th century, though the meaning of progressive education took on a “specific philosophy mirrored by the region or state enacting it” (Smith, 2020). Progressive activists in the social, political, and educational spheres desired a reform where the individual was no longer ignored or taken advantage of for the sake of monetary gain, ultimately benefiting the government or large corporations. 



Credit: Find a Grave Memorials
Credit: Find a Grave Memorials

While researchers like Darrow (2023) and Gagnon (2024) believe the Progressive Education Movement needs to once again come to the forefront of the public school systems and push out standardized testing, Susan Miller Dorsey - a progressive trailblazer - seemed to have the most balanced perspective. Dorsey completely agreed with other Progressive educators who stood for student-centered learning and humanitarian ideas, but also found standards, rules, and regulations to be beneficial in the education system (Smith, 2020). Realistically, standardization and testing needs to continue so that students can successfully apply scientific, mathematical, and technological concepts in order to assist the United States in advancement within these areas of expertise. However, there is also a need for educational leaders to acknowledge the uniqueness of the individual by implementing opportunities for creativity, imagination, and critical thinking within the curriculum. Through the balance of standardization and critical thinking skills, students can receive a holistic education experience and become well-rounded, thoughtful citizens who take care of both their neighbor and their country.


References


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